RAMAPPA

RAMAPPA

The Ramappa Temple, also known as the Ramalingeswara Temple, is a historic Hindu temple located in Palampet, Telangana, India. Here are some interesting facts about the temple:

1. Dedicated to: Lord Shiva, in the form of Ramalingeswara.

2. Built by: Recharla Rudra, a general of the Kakatiya king Ganapati Deva, in 1213 AD.

3. Architecture: Unique blend of Kakatiya and Chalukyan styles, with intricate carvings and sculptures.

4. Famous for: Its stunning dance hall, with beautifully carved pillars and ceilings.

5. UNESCO World Heritage Site: Designated as a World Heritage Site in 2021, recognizing its cultural and architectural significance.

6. Ramappa's legacy: The temple is named after its chief sculptor, Ramappa, who is said to have carved the entire temple single-handedly.

7. Preservation: The temple has undergone restoration work to preserve its original glory.

8. Surroundings: Set amidst picturesque hills and forests, adding to its natural beauty.

9. Significance: Represents the rich cultural heritage of the Kakatiya dynasty and Telangana region.

10. Tourism: A popular tourist destination, attracting visitors from around the world to marvel at its architectural and artistic excellence.

The Ramappa Temple is a testament to the artistic and architectural prowess of the Kakatiya era, showcasing the region's rich cultural heritage.

FORT WARANGAL

WARANGAL FORT:

(KHILA WARANGAL):

Khila Warangal is a historic fort located in Warangal, Telangana, India.Khila Warangal showcases the rich cultural heritage of Telangana and the architectural prowess of the Kakatiya dynasty. Here are some key facts about Khila Warangal:

1. Meaning: "Khila" means fort in Arabic and Telugu.

2. History: Built in the 13th century by the Kakatiya dynasty, which ruled the region from the 12th to the 14th centuries.

3. Architecture: The fort showcases a blend of Hindu and Islamic architectural styles, with four ornate gates, high walls, and a network of underground tunnels.

4. Significance: Khila Warangal was an important stronghold of the Kakatiya kingdom and played a crucial role in the region's history, including the battles against the Delhi Sultanate.

5. Current status: The fort is now a protected monument under the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and is being preserved and restored.

6. Tourist attraction: Khila Warangal is a popular tourist destination, attracting visitors interested in history, architecture, and culture.

7. Nearby attractions: The Thousand Pillar Temple, and the Bhadrakali Temple are nearby attractions.

The Kakatiya dynasty was a powerful and influential royal family that ruled the Telugu-speaking regions of India, primarily in present-day Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and parts of Karnataka, from the 12th to the 14th centuries. Here's a brief overview of their history:

*Rise to Power (1083-1175)*

- The Kakatiyas were feudatories of the Western Chalukyas and later the Chalukya-Cholas.

*Golden Age (1175-1289)*

- Under the rule of Ganapati Deva (1199-1262), the Kakatiyas reached their zenith, conquering much of present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

- Rudrama Devi (1262-1289), one of the few female rulers in Indian history, successfully defended the kingdom against invasions and expanded its borders.

*Decline and Fall (1289-1323)*

- After Rudrama Devi's death, the kingdom faced internal conflicts, external invasions, and the rise of the Delhi Sultanate.

- In 1323, the Kakatiya kingdom was annexed by the Delhi Sultanate under Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

*Notable Rulers*

- Ganapati Deva (1199-1262)

- Rudrama Devi (1262-1289)

- Prataparudra II (1289-1323)

*Legacy*

- The Kakatiyas were patrons of art, architecture, and literature, leaving behind a rich cultural heritage.

- They built numerous temples, including the famous Thousand Pillar Temple in Warangal.

- Their reign saw significant advancements in trade, commerce, and agriculture.

The Kakatiya dynasty played a significant role in shaping the history and culture of the Telugu-speaking regions, leaving a lasting legacy in the fields of art, architecture, and governance.

PRABHAS

PRABHAS 

Prabhas is a popular Indian actor who works primarily in Telugu cinema, also known as Tollywood.

- Full name: Venkata Satyanarayana Prabhas Raju Uppalapati

- Born: October 23, 1979, in Chennai, India

- Nickname: Darling Prabhas

- Known for: His roles in the Baahubali franchise, Varsham, Chatrapathi, and Mirchi

- Awards: Several awards, including the Nandi Award and the SIIMA Award

- Height: 6 feet 1 inch (185 cm)

- Language skills: Telugu, Tamil, Hindi, and English

- Hobbies: Reading, traveling, and collecting cars

Here is the filmography of actor Prabhas:

1. Eeswar (2002) - Prabhas' debut film

2. Raghavendra (2003)

3. Varsham (2004) - a romantic action film

4. Chakram (2005)

5. Chatrapathi (2005) - an action film

6. Pournami (2006)

7. Yogi (2007)

8. Munna (2007)

9. Bujjigadu (2008)

10. Billa (2009) - an action thriller

11. Darling (2010) - a romantic comedy

12. Mr. Perfect (2011)

13. Rebel (2012)

14. Mirchi (2013) - an action film

15. Baahubali: The Beginning (2015) - a fantasy action film

16. Baahubali 2: The Conclusion (2017) - a fantasy action film

17. Saaho (2019) - an action thriller

18. Radhe Shyam (2022) - a romantic drama

19.KALKI 2898 AD(2024)-Sci-fi action mythological movie 

Prabhas has also made guest appearances in a few films, including:

- Action Jackson (2014) - a Hindi film

- Baahubali: The Lost Legends (2017) - an animated film (voice role)

Prabhas is known for his versatility and range in playing different characters, from romantic leads to action heroes. His performances have been widely praised by audiences and critics alike.Prabhas gained widespread recognition and fame for his role as Amarendra Baahubali and Mahendra Baahubali in the Baahubali franchise, which became a massive hit globally. He is known for his charming on-screen presence, impressive acting skills, and dedication to his craft.

Isotopes,Isobars and Isotones

Isotopes,Isobars and Isotones

Isotopes:

The (same) elements which are having same atomic number but different in their

mass numbers.

 (or)

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but

different numbers of neutrons.

Examples:

1. Hydrogen:

    - Protium-H¹ (1 proton, 0 neutrons)

    - Deuterium-H²(1 proton, 1 neutron)

    - Tritium -H³(1 proton, 2 neutrons)

2. Carbon:

    - Carbon-C¹²(6 protons, 6 neutrons)

    - Carbon-C¹³ (6 protons, 7 neutrons)

    - Carbon-C¹⁴(6 protons, 8 neutrons)

3. Oxygen:

    - Oxygen-O¹⁶(8 protons, 8 neutrons)

    - Oxygen-O¹⁷ (8 protons, 9 neutrons)

    - Oxygen-O¹⁸ (8 protons, 10 neutrons)

4. Uranium:

    - Uranium-U²³⁵ (92 protons, 143 neutrons)

    - Uranium-U²³⁸(92 protons, 146 neutrons)

5. Chlorine:

    - Chlorine-35 (Cl³⁵) - 17 protons, 18 neutrons

    - Chlorine-37 (Cl³⁷) - 17 protons, 20 neutrons.

etc

Isobars:

The (different)elements which are having same mass number but different in their

atomic numbers.

 (or)

Isobars are atoms of different elements with the same mass number.

Examples:

1. Carbon-14 (6 protons, 8 neutrons) and Nitrogen-14 (7 protons, 7 neutrons)

2. Oxygen-16 (8 protons, 8 neutrons) and Fluorine-16 (9 protons, 7 neutrons)

3. Calcium-40 (20 protons, 20 neutrons) and Argon-40 (18 protons, 22 neutrons)

4. Potassium-40 (19 protons, 21 neutrons) and Argon-40 (18 protons, 22 neutrons)

5. Chlorine-36 (17 protons, 19 neutrons) and Argon-36 (18 protons, 18 neutrons)

Isotones:

The (different) elements which are having different atomic numbers and different

mass numbers,but similer in their number of neutrons(n=A-Z).

Examples:

1. Carbon-13 (6 protons, 7 neutrons) and Nitrogen-14 (7 protons, 7 neutrons)

2. Oxygen-17 (8 protons, 9 neutrons) and Fluorine-18 (9 protons, 9 neutrons)

3. Neon-21 (10 protons, 11 neutrons) and Sodium-22 (11 protons, 11 neutrons)

4. Magnesium-25 (12 protons, 13 neutrons) and Aluminum-26 (13 protons, 13 neutrons)

5. Silicon-29 (14 protons, 15 neutrons) and Phosphorus-30 (15 protons, 15 neutrons)

CHEMICAL FORMULA

CHEMICAL FORMULA

The shorthand representation of compound. name of a

Eg:Sodium chloride-Nacl

Eg:Sodium hydroxide-NaOH

Eg:Sodium Carbonate- Na₂CO₃ etc.

Ionic Compounds:

The compounds which are having ions in them. (Or)

The compounds which are made up of ions

Eg: sodium chloride - sodium and chloride ions in it.

Eg:Calcium carbonate - calcium and Carbonate ions in it.

To write chemical formula of ionic compound,we use "Criss-Cross method" (or) " ionic formula method".

Criss-Cross Method:

It is used to compounds. write chemical formulae of ionic compounds.

Rules:-

1) Write down the cation symbol/formula at L.H.S,& Anion symbol/formula of at R.H.S.

2) Remove the Sign (+/-) from the charge on it. (& The remaining numbers are called as valencies).

3) Cancel the valencies if possible,

4) Now criss-cross the valencies 

Cation valency given to Anion.

Anion Valenicy given to Cation.

5)Write down the numbers at R.H.S bottom to the symbols or formulae after criss-crossing the valencies.

6) Use bracket for compound ions which are getting more than I number (after criss Cross).

7) Don't mention 1 number for simple & compound ions(do not use bracket)

8) Do not disturb the formula of cation & Anion (Except sign or +/- charges ).

9.Do not mention.1 number in chemical formula.

Examples:

IONS(RADICALS)

IONS(RADICALS)

1.Ions are charged atoms or molecules. (or)

2.Ions are charged chemical species.(or)

3.Atom or group of atoms which are having charge on it are called as Ions.

4.Basically ionic compounds are made up of ions.

5.Ionic compounds are dissolved in polar or ionic liquids(solvents).

6.Ionic compounds are crystalline solids in nature.

7.The melting and boiling points of ionic compounds are very high.

8.Attracted to oppositely charged ions, repelled by similar charges.

9.Conduct electricity in solutions or molten states (electrolytes).

Examples:

table salt-sodium chloride-NaCl will form sodium Na⁺ ion and Cl⁻ chloride ion in water.

Formation of ions:

Ions are formed due to the unequal number of protons and electrons in an atom of an element or a chemical species.It is happening 

1.by the loss of electrons 

2.by the gain of electrons 

Due to loss of electrons, an atom is forming positively charged chemical species(cations).

Example:

Na element has 11electrons(-11)= 11protons (11+)so that the total charge on it is “0(zero)”.

But when it loose it's 1 electron from the last shell,it has 10electrons(-10)= 11protons (11+) due to unequal number of electrons and protons the Na element gets Na¹⁺ ion.

 Due to gain of electrons, an atom is forming negatively charged chemical species (anions).

Example:

Cl element has 17electrons(-17)= 17protons (17+)so that the total charge on it is “0(zero)”.

But when it gains 1 electron from other element,it has 18electrons(-18)= 17protons (17+) due to unequal number of electrons and protons the Cl element gets Cl⁻anion.

Reason for formation of ions:

1.Noble gases are the elements which are present in 18th group(vertical column) in periodic table.

2.These elements are always having 8 electrons in their valency shell.(except Helium -1S²)And this ns²np⁶ (8 electrons in their valency shell) is called as "octet configuration".So that these elements are stable in nature(not reactive-lazy-inert gases).

3.To get this stability all the other elements are ready to lose or gain or share their valency electrons.

5.In the case of ions, some elements will lose or gain electrons to form cations or anions.

Classification of Ions:

I.Based on type of charge:

Ions are classified into 2 types:

1. Positive ions(cations):

The atom or group of atoms which is having positive charge on it.

The ions which are having positive charge on them.

The positive ions are also called as Cations.

2. Negative ions(anions):

The atom or group of atoms which is having Negative charge on it.

The ions which are having Negative charge on them.

The Negative ions are also called as anions.

List of IONS

1.CATIONS(POSITIVE IONS)

 name of cation- symbol/formula 

Hydrogen ion - H⁺

Lithium ion - Li⁺

Sodium cation - Na⁺

Potassium cation -K⁺

Rubidium - Rb⁺

Cesium - Cs⁺

Magnesium ion - Mg²⁺

Calcium ion - Ca²⁺

Zinc ion - Zn²⁺

Barium ion- Ba²⁺

Cadmium ion- Cd²⁺

Nickel ion- Ni²⁺

Aluminium ion-. Al⁺³

Ferrous ion - Fe²⁺

Ferric ion - Fe³⁺

Cuprous ion- Cu⁺

Cupric ion- Cu²⁺

(Silver)Argentous ion-Ag⁺

Argentic ion- Ag⁺²

Stannous ion - Sn²⁺

Stannic ion- Sn⁴⁺

(Gold)Aurous ion-Au⁺

Auric ion- Au³⁺

Ammonium ion- NH₄⁺

Nitronium ion- NO₂⁺

Hydronium ion- H₃O⁺

Platinnous ion- Pt²⁺

Platinnic ion- Pt⁴⁺

Plumbous ion- Pb⁺²

Plumbic ion- Pb⁺⁴

Mangannous ion-Mn²⁺

Mangannic ion- Mn⁺³

Chromous ion- Cr²⁺

Chromic ion- Cr⁺³

Cobaltous ion- Co²⁺

Cobaltic ion- Co⁺³

Antimonous ion-Sb⁺³

Antimonic ion- Sb⁺⁵

Arsenious ion- As⁺³

Arsenic ion- As⁺⁵

Beryllium ion- Be²⁺

Carbon ion- C⁺⁴

Mercurous ion- Hg⁺¹

Mercuric ion- Hg²⁺

2.ANIONS(NEGATIVE IONS)

 name of anion- symbol/formula 

Hydride ion - H⁻

Fluoride ion - F⁻

Cloride ion - Cl⁻

Bromide ion- Br⁻

Iodide ion - I⁻

Oxide ion- O²⁻

Peroxide ion - O₂²⁻

Superoxide ion - O₂⁻

Ozonide ion- O₃⁻

Hydroxide ion - OH⁻

Sulfide ion - S²⁻

Sulfate ion - SO₄²⁻

BiSulfate ion - HSO₄⁻

Sulfite ion - SO₃²⁻

Biulfite ion- HSO₃⁻

Nitride ion- N³⁻

Nitrate ion- NO₃⁻

Nitrite ion- NO₂⁻

Phosphide ion- P³⁻

Phosphate ion- PO₄³⁻

Biphosphate ion- HPO₄²⁻

Phosphite ion - PO₃³⁻

Bihosphite ion - HPO₃²⁻

Carbide ion- C⁴⁻

Cyanide ion- CN⁻

Thiocyanate ion- SCN⁻

Cyanate ion- CNO⁻

Carbonate ion- CO₃²⁻

Bicarbonate ion- HCO₃⁻

Chromate ion- CrO₄²⁻

Dichromate ion- Cr₂O₇²⁻

Permanganate ion-MnO₄⁻

Manganate ion- MnO₄⁻²

Acetate ion- CH₃COO⁻

Formate ion- HCOO⁻

Oxalate ion- C₂O₄²⁻

Iodate ion- IO₃⁻

Borate ion- BO₃³⁻

Chlorate ion- ClO₃⁻

Perchlorate ion- ClO₄⁻

Hypochlorite ion- ClO⁻

Silicate ion- SiO₃⁻²

Ferrocynide ion- [Fe(CN)₆]⁴⁻

Ferricynide ion- [Fe(CN)₆]³⁻

II.Based on number of atoms in them:

Ions are classified into 2 types:

1. Simple ions:

Simple ions are charged particles formed from a single atom that has gained or lost electrons. 

Single atom which is having charge on it.

Examples: 

Sodium ion (Na⁺),

potassium ion(K⁺)

calcium ion (Ca²⁺),

magnesium ion (Mg²⁺),

Aluminium ion(Al⁺³)

Stannic ion(Sn⁴⁺)

chloride ion(Cl⁻),

Oxide ion(O⁻²),

Phosphide ion(P⁻³)

 etc.

2. Compound ions:

A compound ion is a group of two or more atoms that are having charge on it.

The ions which are having 2 or more number of atoms in them.

Examples: 

ammonium (NH₄⁺),

sulfate (SO₄²⁻),

nitrate (NO₃⁻),

hydroxide (OH⁻),

carbonate (CO₃²⁻) etc

III.Based on number of unit of charge on them:

Ions are classified into 4 types:

1.Monovalent positive/negative ions:

The ions which are having 1 unit of positive or negative charge on it.

Example:

ammonium (NH₄⁺),

Sodium ion (Na⁺),

potassium ion(K⁺) etc

nitrate (NO₃⁻),

hydroxide (OH⁻), etc

2.Di/Bivalent positive/negative ions:

The ions which are having 2 units of positive or negative charge on it.

Examples:

calcium ion (Ca²⁺),

magnesium ion (Mg²⁺),

Zinc ion(Zn⁺²) etc

sulfate (SO₄²⁻),

carbonate (CO₃²⁻) etc

3.Trivalent positive/negative ions:

The ions which are having 3 units of positive or negative charge on it.

Examples:

Aluminium ion(Al⁺³)

Chromic ion(Cr⁺³)

Cobaltous ion(Co⁺³) etc

Phosphate (PO₄³⁻)

Nitride (N³⁻)

Borate (BO₃³⁻) etc

4.Polyvalent positive/negative ions:

The ions which are having more than 3 units of positive or negative charge (+4 to +8) or (-4 to -8)on it.

Examples:

Stannic ion(Sn⁴⁺)

Antimonous ion(Sb⁺⁵)

Arsenous ion(As⁺⁵) etc

Carbide ion(C⁻⁴)

[Fe(CN)6]⁴⁻ etc

VALENCY

VALENCY

The combining capacity of an atom is called as VALENCY of it.

It is a number(without positive or negative signs)

It is not a constant value.

To determine valency we use below: 

The number of Hydrogen atoms attached to an atom is the VALENCY of it.

examples:

1)Water (H₂O)=O valency is 2

2)Ammonia (NH₃)=N Valency is 3

3)methane (CH₄)=C Valency is 4 etc.

The number of chlorine atoms attached to an atom is the VALENCY of it.

Examples:

1)HCl=H valency is 1

2)CaCl₂= Ca valency is 2

3)PCl₃=P valency is 3

4)CCl₄=C Valency is 4 etc.

Double the number of Oxygen atoms which are attached to an atom is the VALENCY of it.

1)CaO=Ca valency is 2

2)CO=C Valency is 2

3)CO₂=C Valency is 4

4)P₂O₃=P valency is 3

5)As₂O₅=As valency is 5 etc.

The number of electrons lost by an atom to form cation is the VALENCY of it.

examples:

Hydrogen ion - H⁺ =valency is 1

Lithium ion - Li⁺=valency is 1

Sodium cation - Na⁺ =valency is 1

Magnesium ion - Mg²⁺=valency is 2

Calcium ion - Ca²⁺=valency is 2

Zinc ion - Zn²⁺=valency is 2

Aluminium ion-. Al⁺³=valency is 3

Ferric ion - Fe³⁺=valency is 3 etc.

The number of electrons gain from an atom to form Anion is the VALENCY of it.

Examples:

Hydride ion - H⁻=valency is 1

Fluoride ion - F⁻=valency is 1

Cloride ion - Cl⁻=valency is 1

Sulfide ion - S²⁻=valency is 2

Oxide ion- O²⁻=valency is 2

Nitride ion- N³⁻=valency is 3

Carbide ion-C⁴⁻=valency is 4 etc.

The number of electrons(unpaired electrons in last shell)shared by an atom to form chemical bonds.(The number of bonds around an atom)

The number of electrons present in last shell of an atom is it's valency.

For IA group to IVA group elements

VALENCY=ITS GROUP NUMBER 

IA=1

lithium (Li), 

sodium (Na),

potassium (K),

 rubidium (Rb),

cesium (Cs),

 francium (Fr).

IIA=2

Beryllium (Be)

Magnesium (Mg)

Calcium (Ca)

Strontium (Sr)

Barium (Ba)

Radium (Ra)

IIIA=3

Boron (B)

Aluminum (Al)

Gallium (Ga)

Indium (In)

Thallium (Tl)

IVA=4

Carbon (C)

Silicon (Si)

Germanium (Ge)

Tin (Sn)

Lead (Pb)

For VA group to VIA group elements

VALENCY=8 - GROUP NUMBER 

VA=8-5=3

Nitrogen (N)

Phosphorus (P)

Arsenic (As)

Antimony (Sb)

Bismuth (Bi)

VIA=8-6=2

Oxygen (O)

Sulfur (S)

Selenium (Se)

Tellurium (Te)

Polonium (Po)

VIIA=8-7=1

Fluorine (F)

Chlorine (Cl)

Bromine (Br)

Iodine (I)

Astatine (At)

VIIIA=8-8=0

Helium (He)

Neon (Ne)

Argon (Ar)

Krypton (Kr)

Xenon (Xe)

Radon (Rn)

In ions, the number after removing of positive and negative signs is indicating it's valency.

VARIABLE VALENCY:

A Single element which exhibits different valencies.

Elements that exhibit variable valency most commonly are transition metals(d-block elements). These elements have partially filled d-orbitals in their electron configuration, allowing them to lose or share electrons in various combinations.

Examples: 

Ferrous- Fe(ll)

Ferric -Fe(lll)

Cuprous - Cu(l)

Cupric - Cu(ll)

(Silver)Argentous-Ag(l)

Argentic -Ag(ll)

Stannous -Sn(ll)

Stannic -Sn(lV)

(Gold)Aurous -Au(l)

Auric -Au(lll)

Dalton's atomic theory

Dalton's atomic theory:

It was proposed by John Dalton 

Here are the main postulates of his theory:

All matter is made of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. At the time, atoms were still theoretical, but Dalton proposed they were the fundamental building blocks.

Atoms of a specific element are identical in mass, size, and other properties. This meant that all gold atoms, for example, would be exactly alike.

Atoms of different elements differ in size, mass, and other properties. This explained why different elements have different physical and chemical properties.

Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. This postulate introduced the concept of conservation of mass, meaning the total amount of mass in a closed system remains constant during a chemical reaction.

Atoms of different elements can combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds. This explained how elements combine to form new substances with different properties.

Limitations of Dalton's Theory:

We know that atoms are divisible and are made up of even smaller particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Atoms of the same element can have different masses (isotopes) due to varying numbers of neutrons.

It could not explain the combination of atoms with one another.

FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES:

· The atom of an element is still having very small particles in it.They are 

called as sub-atomic particles.These are the basic constituents of an atom.

· The protons, neutrons, and electrons are the fundamental particles of an 

atom of an element.

· The study of the fundamental particles in the atom is essential for 

understanding the behavior of matter.

Electron:

It was discovered by J.J Thomson

It was denoted by “ e¯” symbol 

It is having 1 unit of negative charge on it

Proton: 

It was discovered by “Gold Stien”

It was denoted by “P” (or) “P+” (or) “H+”

It is having 1 unit of positive charge on it

Neutron:

It was discovered by “James Chadwick”

It was denoted by “n” (or) ‘n’

It is having no charge on it (neutral)